Unravelling the Ethnographic Layers of India
“In writing of Indian culture, I am highly conscious of my own subjectivity; arguably, there is more than one Indian culture, and certainly more than one view of Indian culture.” ~ Shashi Tharoor
The diversity and complexity of Indian culture can be confusing and baffling. Therefore, to understand the why’s and what’s of Indian ethos, we need to learn the back story.
Over the centuries, cultural exchanges have happened voluntarily or were brought about by trade movements or territorial invasions. Here is an attempt to trace some milestones of Indian history that have had a significant impact on its cultural evolution.
Before we begin
India (aka Bharat) is a very ancient and culturally diverse civilization. Currently, India is spread across a landmass of 3.287 million sq. km and has 22 regional languages & scripts. The food, customs, and clothing also change as you travel from one state to another and are localized. Interestingly though, they all fall under the greater umbrella of a common belief system revolving around common deities, seasonal changes and are deeply rooted in spirituality. It is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, & Sikhism, and they all coexist in harmony with other world religions. India’s history and culture have always remained dynamic, from the beginning of human civilization. Its spirit has always been secular, peace-loving, welcoming, and inclusive of all humanity and has tried to remain in sync with the surrounding natural world. It begins with human settlements along the Indus River in the north and farming and trading communities in the southern parts of India. The history of India has always had a constant flux of migrating people with diverse cultures within and from regions surrounding India. Available evidence suggests that the use of iron, copper and other metals was widely prevalent in the Indian sub-continent quite early, indicative of the progress this part of the world had made.
Ancient India
Hominid activity in the Indian subcontinent stretches back over 250,000 years. Significant human progress had begun in India by the Holocene Period, about 10,000 years ago or even before that. Recent recorded Indian history dates back to 2500–1600BC. Archaeological excavations in the past 50 years have significantly changed the understanding of India’s past, throwing more light on the Vedic Period, i.e. from c. 1500-c.500 BCE when the Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas and the Upanishads were penned down in the Sanskrit language. More and more evidence suggests that the popular epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata are a factual part of India’s history.
By the end of the fourth millennium BC, India had emerged as a region of highly developed and rich civilization in terms of material & intellectual wealth. The proof of the same lies in its brilliant temple architecture, effectual town planning & marvellous stone carvings (read more: https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-architecture/ancient-architecture/temple-architecture.html).
Various scriptures about philosophy, business, economics, medicine, statesmanship, different art forms, and literature from that period too support the fact of the existence of an intellectually and materially prosperous civilization (read more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_texts).
Indian temples in those times were not just a place of worship, but they also served as a place of learning. Remnants of sixteen ancient universities such as Taxila & Nalanda, go on to show that India was indeed the sought-after destination for higher learning (read more: https://www.myindiamyglory.com/2019/02/14/15-ancient-universities-of- india-from-3600-plus-years-ago/). There are records of these universities of/by many pupils & scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia, and Turkey who came to these universities for higher learning. Here students were trained in fine arts, architecture, law, philosophy, medicine (including complex surgeries), mathematics, astronomy, politics, the art of war among other subjects. Nalanda had dormitories for students, that provided housing for 10,000 students in the university’s heyday and could accommodate 2,000 professors. In 1193 AD, the library of Nalanda was set ablaze by Bakhtiyar Khilji after he ransacked the university. Over 9 million manuscripts were housed in the library in three large multi-storied buildings, which burned for over three months. Due to such barbaric invasions on all these universities at different times, the world has suffered a colossal loss of a treasure trove of knowledge!
For the most part, several small kingdoms were ruling the different parts of present-day India. The ethnic Indian kings or emperors followed the rule of assimilation & accommodation rather than destruction & displacement to establish their law among the conquered indigenous tribes. This method led to a polity held by a federation of tribes under the authority of a Hindu, sometimes Buddhist, or Jain King. It was only a few times in Indian history that most regions of present-day India were ruled by one single ruler. Like during the reign of Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (322 BCE — 185 BCE) and more recently during the reign of the Mughals (1526–1530 AD), followed by the Marathas (1674–1818), and later under the British Empire (between 1858 -1947).
Foreign influences on Indian culture
Now, let us look at the relatively other historical events that altered the ethnographic landscape of India through the last few centuries caused by trade and various foreign invasions.
The culturalimpact created my movement of traders via The Silk Route
In 138 BCE, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty of China (202 BCE — 220 CE) sent his emissary Zhang Qian to the west to negotiate with the Yuezhi people to help defeat the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian’s journeys made him comein contact with varied cultures & civilizations in central Asia. The northern Mesopotamian province (present-day Iran) became China’s preferred partner in trade as part of the Parthian Empire, opening important cultural exchanges. From 1 AD up until 1800 AD), India and China were at the top of world trade GDP. The rich spices, exquisite art & craft items, and beautiful silk weave from India contributed to the growing trade between the countries along the silk route. Some of the most intricate silk & cotton weaving and handloom craftsmanship from India produced amazingly beautiful fabrics that were much sought after everywhere, especially in Rome, Egypt & Greece. While many different kinds of merchandise travelled along the silk route, the name comes from the popularity of silk with the west, especially with Rome. The silk route stretched from China through India, Asia Minor, up throughout Mesopotamia, to Egypt, the African continent, Greece, Rome, and Britain. By the time of the Roman Emperor Augustus (r.27 BCE — 14 CE) trade between the east and the west was decisively cemented through the Silk route.
The ultimate significance of the Silk Road was the exchange of culture. Technology, language, science, architecture, design, art, religion, philosophy, and other elements of civilization were exchanged along these routes. The merchants were the carriers of these, along with the commercial goods they traded from country to country. Paper and gunpowder had a much larger impact on culture than silk. Thus cultural exchanges flourished during this time through the travelling traders moving from one part of the world to another.
The Mughal Empire — (1526–1707)
Indian subcontinent was a prized catch for many invaders due to its riches. The small kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent were not united and thus vulnerable to foreign attacks. The Mughal dynasty was established in 1526 when Babur followed the example of his ancestor Timur (d.1405) and invaded the land he knew as Hindustan (the Indian subcontinent). The Mughals are said to be descendants of both the 14th-century Turkic warlord Tīmūr (Tamerlane) and the even more formidable Mongol conqueror Genghis (Chingiz) Khan (d. 1227). The Mughals followed the Muslim religion and ruled a country with a large majority belonging to the Hindu religion or faith.
The Mughal rule amalgamated Islam in South Asia and was responsible for the spread of the Muslim faith in India. With them, they introduced Persian culture, including carpet designs, culinary influences, and architectural style (e.g. the Taj Mahal), amongst others. Unfortunately, some Mughal rulers were intolerant of the Hindu & other faiths and were responsible for destroying many beautiful & ancient temples in India. Some Mughal emperors even imposed the Jizya tax, levied on non-Muslim residents of their territory in return for their ‘protection’ and for not following their faith. The Mughals brought many changes to India, such as a centralized government that brought together many smaller kingdoms. The Persian language, mixed with Arabic and Hindi, created Urdu. Unlike the British, they settled in India over many generations and enjoyed the spoils of the land. The Mughal Empire gradually began to decline in the 18th century, as the Marathas slowly conquered much of their territory. Later, the last Mughal emperor, Bahādur Shah II (1837–57), was exiled by the British after his involvement with the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58.
Impact of Portuguese, French & Dutch Colonialism
India had trade connections with Europe since time immemorial through land routes, which affected both India and Europe culturally and materially. But the advent of European powers into India through the discovery of a sea route had far-reaching consequences on the shape & course of Indian society and its history from the middle of the 15th century. The Portuguese were the first to come to India as traders and were followed by the Dutch, the British, and the French. Their colonies left traces of their culture in the form of Architecture, town planning & building design, language, religion & faith (Christianity), cuisine, and education which are mostly found around the port towns of India. There is Portuguese influence in Goa, Dutch influence in Cochin and heavy French influence in Pondicherry. Among all the European colonies, the British had the most lasting cultural impact on the Indian subcontinent as they ruled most of India for a considerable period. Let us look in detail at how this period had a cultural influence on India.
Impact of British Colonialism — From 1757 to 1947
The British came to India as traders and slowly were able to take control of the whole of India, mainly because India comprised of many small kingdoms at the time and was not united. They managed to sign treaties and made military & trading alliances with many of these independent states.
Language: When the British arrived in India, Indian people spoke various different languages, dressed differently, followed different religions, ate diverse food, followed dissimilar customs, all as per the geographical region they were living in. They were just mostly united in their even temperament and therefore could live together harmoniously. Thomas Macaulay, the first law member in the Governor General’s Council, promoted the English language as a tool for educating the people in Western thought and ideals (Macaulay’s Minute of 1835). In 1844, English became the authorized language, and people having knowledge of English were favored for public employment. This abetted the spread of English education in India. The need for low-ranking English-knowing Indian clerks was one of the main reasons that drove the government to take steps to spread Western education. The most important thing that the British really took away from Indians was their amazing education system, which till then was not based on finding jobs but finding knowledge. But, this enforced English language education in the system was a small blessing in disguise for that time. Indians from varied regions speaking different languages could now communicate with each other through the medium of English.
Some Western scholars even contributed to rediscovering India’s rich and glorious history which was getting lost due to so many foreign invasions on the land and their oppressive ways with the ethnic people. A few people are of the opinion and some times rightly so, that this history was heavily biased to either justify or glorify the British colonization of India. William Jones founded the Asiatic Society. Jones himself was a great scholar of Sanskrit and translated some ancient Indian works like the Manu Smriti into English. Scholarly articles on Sanskrit and Indian past by Jones’ were published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Charles Wilkins translated the Bhagavad Gita into English. Max Mueller translated the Rig Veda for the western audience. Alexander Cunningham and John Marshall set up the Archaeological Survey of India. James Princep decoded the Ashokan inscriptions which were written in Brahmi.
Social reforms: A period of social reforms began in India during the time of Governor-General Lord William Bentinck (1828–35) who was helped by educated Indians like Raja Rammohan Roy to systematically eradicate social evils. ‘Sati’ or the practice of burning a widow with her dead husband. It was made illegal or punishable by law in 1829 and female infanticide was banned. Slavery was declared illegal. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed. Campaigns against child marriage and polygamy were undertaken with Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar’s assistance. The custom of offering little children as a sacrifice to please God, practiced by certain tribes, was banned by Governor-General Lord Hardinge.
Transport & Communication: The means of transport in India were retrograde up to the middle of the 19th century in India and goods & people were transported by road mainly by bullock-carts, horses, mules, camels & elephants. Riverine transport by boats was also ubiquitous. The British rulers introduced steamships on the rivers and set about improving roads. But the introduction of the railways was the most revolutionary improvement in transport introduced by the British along with the telegraph and the postal system that changed the Indian experience with transport. Though there is nothing to suggest that India’s interest and well-being were taken into account while introducing these facilities in India by the British rulers. The primary concern was to serve the economic, administrative, and military interests of the British people. The railway travel and communication system of Indians between the important city centers grew only as a by-product.
Another interesting consequence of the introduction of railways was that it linked different parts of India and promoted an exchange of ideas among the ethnic people, especially among her leaders. This also helped foster a sense of unity among ethnic Indians to rebel against the British regime. The concept of a free country as a whole now took precedence over regional and provincial isolationism separated by language, religion, and cultural differences.
Economy: The British colonial policies, like imposing a high tax on the agricultural sector, ruined the agrarian economy. The commercialization of agriculture, ruining of Indian handicrafts, import of finished mill-made cloth at a cheaper rate, disregard of irrigation facilities till the second half of the 19th century, and the greed of the British East India Company officials had considerably impoverished India and crippled its economy. The 1943 Bengal famine, which killed 3 million people, was the result of callous decisions and policy failure rather than monsoon failure. Thus, Indians were economically better off in pre-colonial India compared to colonial India.
Post Independence — From 1947
The Indian independence movement spanning from 1857 to 1947, was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending the British rule in India. Independence coincided with the partition of India, in which British India was divided along religious lines into India and Pakistan. This partition is probably saw the bloodiest division of the land caused due to religion. This was a lapse of judgement on the part of the British and Indian leaders of that time. Though India became a free nation on August 15, 1947, it declared itself a Sovereign, Democratic and Republic state with the adoption of the Constitution on January 26, 1950. The Constitution gave the citizens of India the power to choose their own government and paved the way for democracy.
Thus, in the last five hundred years, India has undergone a slow transition from a feudal, conservative, exclusive social system to an independent, social capitalism which is progressive and inclusive in its outlook. The various foreign invaders and colonizers stripped India of its many riches but brought in even more diversity than before. This period was all about self-assertion based on reflection as a result of external stimuli of ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity, and people’s rule instead of the rule of one man, i.e., from monarchy to democracy.
(Such ethnographic and cultural understanding is necessary when one is working on Design Thinking and UX Design projects for a complex nation like India, as such a study can possibly influence the design decisions.)
-By Priya Dubey
